We performed a two-stage literature search using the .gov search platform. NdDs comprise intellectual disability (ID), communication disorders, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), neurodevelopmental motor disorders-including tic disorders-and specific learning disorders.
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Parallels transporter for parallels 7 manual#
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), NdD are characterized by developmental deficits or differences in brain processes that produce impairment of personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning. These findings prompt further investigation into the LC-NA system in other medical conditions and raise questions about what changes might occur in the LC during infantile disorders and how these changes may impact the pathophysiology and occurrence of neurodevelopmental diseases (NdD). These findings have led to the hypothesis that LC impairment may play a key role in neurodegenerative disorders (namely, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease), in parallel with further emphasizing the significance of this nucleus in CNS physiology. In recent years, the involvement of this nucleus in adult neurological disorders has been increasingly recognized, not only thanks to sophisticated neuropathological postmortem analysis in patients and several experimental models, but also to advances in neuroimaging tools that eventually enabled the in vivo study of LC integrity. The main source of noradrenaline (NA) in the human brain is the locus coeruleus (LC), a pontine nucleus that supplies NA to the entire central nervous system (CNS), except for the basal ganglia. The central noradrenergic system plays crucial roles in maintaining the homeostasis of the adult brain and influences various neural networks that control cognition and behavior. Further research is needed to fully understand the interplay between the LC-NA system and NdD. In this narrative review, we provide an overview of how the LC-NA system may represent a common pathophysiological and pathogenic mechanism in NdD and a reliable target for symptomatic and disease-modifying drugs. New animal models may be used to test the contribution of the LC-NA system to the pathogenic pathways of NdD and to evaluate the efficacy of NA-targeting drugs. In this context, a new neuroimaging tool, LC Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), has been developed to visualize the LC in vivo and assess its integrity, which could be a valuable tool for exploring morphological alterations in NdD in vivo in humans. Clinical data shows the involvement of the LC-NA system in several NdDs, suggesting a pathogenetic role in the development of such disorders. The LC is the main brain noradrenergic nucleus, key in the regulation of arousal, attention, and stress response, and its early maturation and sensitivity to perinatal damage make it an interesting target for translational research.
The aim of this article is to highlight the potential role of the locus-coeruleus–noradrenergic (LC-NA) system in neurodevelopmental disorders (NdDs).
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